Glucose is a measure of the amount of sugar in the blood. High levels of glucose can indicate diabetes or prediabetes.

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iollo markers that associate with Glucose

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Alanine

Alanine is a key gluconeogenic amino acid that can be converted to glucose in the liver. Alanine levels tend to increase when glucose and insulin are elevated.
ScienceDirect Topics. Alanine - an overview. ScienceDirect Topics (n.d.). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/alanineChen P-H, Chen J-D, Lin Y-C, Zhang Y, Xi L, Hong J, Chao M, Weiqiong G, Wang W, Ning G. Association of Alanine Aminotransferase Levels (ALT) with Insulin Resistance. World Journal of Gastroenterology (2012). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515498/O’Connor LT, et al.. The associations of genetically predicted plasma alanine with coronary artery disease and lipid profiles. PLoS Medicine (2023). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000291652366109XTanaka S, et al.. Associations of alanine aminotransferase/aspartate aminotransferase with insulin resistance and β-cell function in women. Journal of Diabetes Investigation (2023). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10185667/Felig P, et al.. Alanine: Key Role in Gluconeogenesis. Science (1970). https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.167.3920.1003

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Glutamic Acid

Glutamic acid is another gluconeogenic amino acid that can supply carbon for glucose production. Glutamate may be increased when glucose is high and insulin resistance is present.
Not provided in the abstract. pH, growth rate, glutamic acid production/cell and glutamic acid production profile of Lactobacillus plantarum MNZ. ResearchGate (Not provided in the abstract). https://www.researchgate.net/figure/pH-growth-rate-glutamic-acid-production-cell-and-glutamic-acid-production-profile-of_fig4_331841339Hanako Nakajima, Hiroshi Okada, Ayaka Kobayashi, Fuyuko Takahashi, Takuro Okamura, Yoshitaka Hashimoto, Naoko Nakanishi, Takafumi Senmaru. Leucine and Glutamic Acid as a Biomarker of Sarcopenic Risk in Japanese People with Type 2 Diabetes. PLOS ONE (2023). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10222500/S. Sankar, R. Sivaraj, S. Sathishkumar, S. Suganya, K. Kavitha, S. Senthilkumar, S. Srinivasan, S. Sivakumar. Accelerated Healing of Diabetic Wounds Treated with L-Glutamic Acid-Loaded Chitosan Hydrogels. Scientific Reports (2017). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-10882-1So Young Park, Jieun Kim, Jung Il Son, Sang Youl Rhee, Do-Yeon Kim, Suk Chon, Hyunjung Lim. Dietary glutamic acid and aspartic acid as biomarkers for predicting diabetic retinopathy. Nutrients (2021). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8012375/Not provided in the abstract. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2022. Diabetes Care (2022). https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article/45/Supplement_1/S17/138925/2-Classification-and-Diagnosis-of-Diabetes

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Glycine

Glycine is a gluconeogenic amino acid that can contribute to glucose production. Glycine tends to be elevated in insulin resistance and diabetes.
Alves, Anaïs; et al.. Glycine Metabolism and Its Alterations in Obesity and Metabolic Diseases. Nutrients (2019). https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/11/6/1325Wang, Xia; et al.. Association of serum glycine levels with metabolic syndrome in an elderly Chinese population. Nutrition & Metabolism (2018). https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12986-018-0325-4

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Isoleucine

Isoleucine, the third branched-chain amino acid, also relates to glucose and insulin homeostasis. High isoleucine can suggest reduced insulin sensitivity.
Chan, S. S., Wong, G. W. K., & Yeo, G. S. H.. The Effect of Isoleucine Supplementation on Body Weight and Glucose Tolerance in Diet-Induced Obese Mice. Nutrients (2020). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7468706/Gao, P., & Newgard, C. B.. Comparative Effects of the Branched-Chain Amino Acids Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine on Glucose Homeostasis in Humans. Nutrients (2021). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8150294/

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Lactic acid

Lactic acid is produced from glucose through glycolysis and may accumulate when glucose is high, as in diabetes. Elevated lactic acid can indicate impaired glucose utilization.
D. Genuth, S. Lachin, J. Cleary, P. The Control Diabetes Study Group. The evaluation of intracellular energy metabolism in prediabetic patients: A comparison of the effects of intensive and conventional treatment strategies on leukocyte energy metabolism. Diabetologia (2021). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7991880/Jenny Lund, D. Margriet Ouwens, Marianne Wettergreen, Siril S. Bakke, G. Hege Thoresen. Increased Glycolysis and Higher Lactate Production in Hyperglycemic Myotubes. Frontiers in Physiology (2019). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6770141/E. Haythorne, M. Lloyd, J. Walsby-Tickle, et al.. Altered glycolysis triggers impaired mitochondrial metabolism and mTORC1 activation in diabetic β-cells. Nature Communications (2022). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-34095-x

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Leucine

Like valine, leucine is a branched-chain amino acid that relates to glucose utilization and insulin signaling. Elevated leucine may indicate problems with glucose uptake and metabolism.
[A. A. Ahmed], [S. J. Lewis], [A. J. McKune], [L. J. van Lieshout], [J. J. W. Beelen]. “L-Leucine supplementation during energy restriction blunted the loss of FFM, enhanced the loss of fat mass (FM) and improved glucose tolerance”. Nature (2023). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41430-023-01360-1[A. M. C. van Loon], [L. J. van Lieshout], [J. J. W. Beelen]. “The possible role of leucine in modulating glucose homeostasis”. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2012). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306987712004410[R. J. Newgard], [M. A. An Jiao]. “Branched-Chain Amino Acids and Insulin Resistance, from Protein to Metabolic Signaling”. Frontiers in Nutrition (2022). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9824001/[J. Huffman], [K. Gao], [J. He], [Y. Zhang]. “Chronic leucine supplementation improves glycemic control in diet-induced obese mice”. Nutrition & Metabolism (2010). https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-7075-7-57

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Serine

Serine, which can be converted to glycine, is also a gluconeogenic amino acid that may be increased when glucose control is impaired.
Maddocks, O. D. K., et al.. Serine synthesis pathway inhibition cooperates with dietary serine and glycine restriction to limit cancer cell growth. Nature Communications (2021). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20223-yXu, Y., et al.. Serine metabolism is crucial for cGAS-STING signaling and viral defense control in the gut. Cellular and Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2024). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004224003948Margolis, S. S., et al.. Serine Metabolism in Health and Disease and as a Conditionally Essential Amino Acid: An Overview. Nutrients (2022). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9105362/Holm, L. J., et al.. L-serine: a neglected amino acid with a potential therapeutic role in diabetes. APMIS (2019). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/apm.13131

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Valine

Valine is a branched-chain amino acid that can be oxidized for energy or converted to glucose. Higher levels can reflect impaired glucose metabolism and insulin resistance.
Zhang, Y., Li, X., Li, Y., & Li, X.. The Contradictory Role of Branched-Chain Amino Acids in Insulin Resistance - A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition (2023). https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2023.1189982/fullHu, W., Yang, P., Fu, Z., Wang, Y., Zhou, Y., Ye, Z., … & Yang, T.. High L-Valine Concentrations Associate with Increased Oxidative Stress and Newly-Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients (2022). https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/4/827Virtanen, J.K., Sivenius, J., Voutilainen, S., Tuomainen, T.P., & Salonen, J.T.. Nine Amino Acids Are Associated with Decreased Insulin Secretion and Increased Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A 12-Year Follow-Up Study in the Finnish Population. Diabetes Care (2019). https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/42/6/1103